Teacher's Curriculum Institute

In Chapter 34, you read about how Roman power grew through four main periods of expansion. In the end, Rome ruled over an empire that lasted 500 years. Yet the costs of expansion were great. Below is a biography of two men who lived during the beginning stages of Rome's expansion. They both served in the Roman military, aiding Rome in its conquests. They also served in politics, witnessing firsthand the effects of those conquests on Rome's people. As you read, think about how each man tried to help the people of Rome as they experienced the results of conquest.

Tiberius Gracchus was born in 163 b.c.e. into a well-to-do plebeian family. Growing up, he enjoyed a traditional Greek education-which included the study of philosophy, mathematics, and the Greek language. This gave him an open-minded view of the world. As a young man in the Roman army, he distinguished himself during the last Puni War in Carthage and later in Spain. During his service in the army, Tiberius traveled throughout the Italian peninsula. He noted that many of the people who worked the land were foreign slaves, because small property owners had to serve in the army. When he returned to Rome, he discovered many people in the city living in poverty. Tiberius felt that these two situations could lead to the end of the Republic. To find solutions to these problems, he decided to enter politics.

In 133 b.c.e. he was elected tribune. He immediately began to campaign for land reform. He wanted to pass a law that would divide huge estates belonging to the rich into smaller farms and distribute them among the poor. Many small farm owners had been drafted to fight in the Roman army. Some never returned to their farms. Those who did discovered that the constant warfare had severely damaged the Italian farmland. These small farmers lacked the money to repair the damage. So, they were forced to sell their land to rich landlords. These new larger farms owned by the rich were called latifundias. The latifundias used slave labor, and the few remaining small farmers found they could not produce crops as cheaply as the larger farms. Eventually these small farmers also sold their property to the rich and moved to the cities in search of work.

Tiberius's idea proved quite popular with the common people but was strongly opposed by large landowners. Tiberius wanted to ensure the passage of land-reform laws. So, he announced that he would run for a second term as tribune, an unusual action at the time. This enraged the members of the Senate, and they organized a plot against him. His enemies stirred up a mob of rioters who seized Tiberius and many of his followers and killed them.

Tiberius's dreams of reform were left to his younger brother, Gaius. Gaius Gracchus was born around 153 b.c.e. Like his older brother, Gaius received a traditional Greek education and distinguished himself in military service. Gaius was a flamboyant person, and a passionate and skilled speaker. After his brother was murdered in 133 b.c.e., he took up his brother's cause of helping the poor. Committed to political reform, he proved to be an even stronger opponent to the wealthy than his brother had been.

Gaius was elected tribune in 124 b.c.e. and was reelected the following year. As tribune, he passed programs that benefited many groups in Roman society. For example, he supported a measure that divided state lands from conquests into smaller holdings and redistributed them to the lower classes. Another law he passed created corn allowances, or subsidies, for the poor living in the city. Under the law, the government provided produce and money for food to guarantee that these people would not starve. This reform was important to many people in Rome. After the years of conquest, very few people could afford to continue operating farms. Farmers who lost or sold their property left the land and drifted toward the cities, particularly Rome. Unemployment was high. Rome did not have many factories, and slaves held most of the few available jobs.

Gaius developed programs that built better roads and harbors, thus helping the business community. He also reformed the system for taxing the provinces and administering the law. All of Gauis's reforms weakened the power of the Senate. Although Gaius became popular with many citizens, most senators hated and feared him. Therefore, when Gaius ran for a third term as tribune in 121 b.c.e., the Senate supported its own candidate. Gaius lost the election, and his enemies in the Senate went after him. A mob of soldiers and citizens attacked Gaius and his supporters, claiming they threatened the stability of the Republic. Recognizing that resistance was hopeless, Gaius ordered his personal slave to kill him.

Though both met tragic ends, Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus introduced a number of reforms that made a dramatic impact on the quality of life for many people in Rome.

Investigating Biographies

Historians examine the past very carefully. Certainly, they want to record an accurate record of historical events. But more than that, they want to explain the importance of the past. These terms help historians do just that:

Cause: Reason for an action, event, or behavior
Effect: Result of an action, event, or behavior
Short-term effect: Effect seen shortly after an event, action, or behavior hasoccurred
Long-term effect: Effect seen long after an event, action, or behavior has occurred

Use the terms above to help you answer these questions:
1.	What caused Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus to become reformers?
2.	What were the short-term effects of their reforms? Identify at least three examples.
3.	Were there any long-term effects of their reforms? Explain.

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