The Homestead Act was one of the most revolutionary laws for distributing public land in world history. Congress passed the Homestead Act in 1862, after the southern states had left the Union. Signed into law by Abraham Lincoln, the act took effect on January 1, 1863. The new law released vast amounts of “unoccupied” public property to private citizens.

The Homestead Act allowed hundreds of thousands of settlers to become property owners. It also changed the face of the West. Let’s look at how the act worked, the lives of homesteaders, and the lasting impact of this far-reaching law.

How the Homestead Act Worked

The Homestead Act provided that a citizen or intended citizen could claim 160 acres (one quarter of a square mile) of surveyed government land. The only qualification was that a homesteader had to be a head of household at least 21 years of age.

The first wave of homesteaders after the Civil War hailed mostly from the Ohio and Mississippi valleys. They were joined by eastern farmers without land of their own, war widows and other single women, and former slaves. Later, railroad companies encouraged European immigrants to come to America and become homesteaders. The railroads hoped to profit by giving farmers and ranchers a way to ship their crops and livestock to market.

People interested in homesteading first had to file their intentions at the nearest land office. The homesteader paid a filing fee of $10 to claim a parcel of land and a $2 commission to the land agent.

Homesteaders had to “prove up” (improve) the land in order to keep their claim, free and clear. Proving up the land included building a home, growing crops, and living on the land for five years. After completing these requirements, homesteaders became the legal owners of the land.

Changes in the Homestead Act continued through the 19th century, especially with the addition of Alaskan land. In 1934, the Taylor Grazing Act substantially decreased the amount of land available to homesteaders in the West. But the Homestead Act remained in effect until it was repealed in 1976. Provisions for homesteading in Alaska continued until 1986.

The Homesteading Life

By 1900, homesteaders had filed 600,000 claims for 80 million acres of land. Most pioneers settled on the western plains in Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, and Dakota Territory. The majority became farmers. Some homesteaders bought additional land and ranched.

The lenient rules of the Homestead Act contributed to the undoing of many settlers. Homesteaders did not need to own equipment or know anything about farming. Many were unprepared for the challenges of life on the plains. In some places, there was not enough water available for small claims to support a family. In many locations timber was scarce, so settlers built homes of sod. These mud huts barely protected people from hailstorms, drought, prairie fires, blizzards, and relentless wind. From 1874 to 1877, swarms of locusts darkened the western skies, consuming crops.

Human battles were equally challenging. Early homesteaders lived in fear of Native Americans fighting for their lands. Although Indian attacks were rare, settlers had to depend on the U.S. Army for protection. Farmers faced heavy debt, lack of cash, and high fees for rail transportation and grain storage. When prices dropped, farmers sank deeper into debt. In some areas, ranchers resisted dividing up the open range for farms.

Eventually, frame and brick houses replaced the sod. Trees grew high to shield dwellings, and windmills pumped water from deep underground. Technological advances helped make farming profitable. Yet crises continued for many farmers, leading to protests and political action in the 1870s, 1880s, and 1890s.

The homestead life is depicted in the stories of Laura Ingalls Wilder (1867–1957), who grew up on homesteads. Her books later became the basis for the television show “Little House on the Prairie.” Homesteaders are also the subject of a “living history” center, the Homestead National Monument, in southeast Nebraska.

The Lasting Impact

The impact of the Homestead Act is still felt today. One important impact was on the environment. In the mid 1800s, great herds of grazing buffalo roamed the plains. The buffalo all but disappeared as they were killed by settlers and starved by dwindling grazing lands. In their place came non-native species of cattle and sheep imported by homesteaders. The native grasslands of the prairies were replaced by rows of corn.

While settlers benefited from the Homestead Act, the native peoples of the West suffered dearly. The Homestead Act was based on the idea that the land was, legally speaking, “unoccupied.” Of course, Native Americans had lived on the prairies for thousands of years. Indians saw their land taken by the government and their primary food source (buffalo) destroyed. Many died fighting to defend their way of life. Others were forced to live on reservations.

Native Americans had viewed the land as a good to be shared by all. This view gave way to the concept of private property. Thousands of miles of open space became a patchwork of farms and ranches, crisscrossed first by rails and then by highways. Settlements and forts became towns and cities. Today we can only imagine the endless view of open land that greeted homesteaders just 150 years ago.

Enrichment Activity

Answer these questions:

1.	How did the Homestead Act work?
2.	What three words best describe the lives of homesteaders? What evidence best supports your choice of each of the three words you chose?
3.	What were several of the lasting effects of the Homestead Act?
4.	Imagine you are a representative in Congress serving at the time the Homestead Act was debated. If you could go back in time and vote for or against the act, how would you vote? Explain your vote to white settlers and to Native Americans living at the time.